Islamic views on evolution
Pre-Adamite
The pre-Adamite hypothesis or pre-adamism is the theological belief that humans (or intelligent yet non-human creatures) existed before the biblical character Adam. Pre-adamism is therefore distinct from the conventional Abrahamic belief that Adam was the first human. Advocates of this hypothesis are known as "pre-Adamites", along with the humans who they believe existed before Adam.
900 – 1700
In early Islam, a common belief held that mankind is actually the successor of other intelligent creatures such as Jinn and Hinn. Medieval Muslim traditions often referred to the Jinn as pre-Adamites,[2]:39 depicted as human-like in various ways. Although the notion of Jinn as pre-adamites was generally accepted, the idea that before the known Adam there lived other humans was a controversial one. From the mid-ninth century onwards the idea appeared that God created several Adams each of whom presides over an era lasting around 50,000 years. Although this concept was regarded as heretical by most Muslims, it was widely accepted by Ismailis and Sufis.[3]:230-231
In Sufism
Various Sufis, especially Sultan Bahu, a famous 17th-century mystic of the Qadiriyya, a Sufi order, advocated this theory. In one of his writings, he wrote, "Once God said to the Prophet "O Muhammad I created an Adam before I created your father Adam, whom I gave a life of thousand years. Then I created fifteen thousand Adams all of whom I gave a life of ten thousand years. After that I created your Adam."[11][non-primary source needed]
According to that statement, the pre-Adamic era lasted for 150,001,000 years.
References
2. El-Zein, Amira (2009). Islam, Arabs, and Intelligent World of the Jinn. Syracuse University Press. ISBN 978-0-815-65070-6.
3. Crone, Patricia (2016). Islam, the Ancient Near East and Varieties of Godlessness: Collected Studies in Three Volumes, Band 3. BRILL. ISBN 978-9-004-31931-8.
11. Sultan Bahu. Ain ul Faqr. p. 285.
Islamic views on evolution are diverse, ranging from theistic evolution to Old Earth creationism.[1] Some Muslims around the world believe "humans and other living things have evolved over time," yet some others believe they have "always existed in present form."[2] Muslim thinkers have proposed and accepted elements of the theory of evolution, some holding the belief of the supremacy of God in the process. Usaama al-Azami suggested that both narratives of creation and of evolution, as understood by modern science, may be believed by modern Muslims as addressing two different kinds of truth, the revealed and the empirical.[3] Muneer Al-Ali argues that faith and science can be integrated and complement each other.[4]
Theology
Unlike the Bible, the story of creation in the Qur'an is not told in one chapter, but rather can be pieced together from verses all over the book.[5]
Creation of the universe
In the surah, Sūrat al-Anbiyāʼ, the Quran states that "the heavens and the earth were of one piece" before being parted.[6] God then created the landscape of the earth, placed the sky above it as a roof, and created the day and night cycles by appointing an orbit for both the sun and moon.[7] Some modern Muslims, including Abdullah Hatem of the Yaqeen Institute for Islamic Research, interpret the Quran's story of the creation of the world in the context of science, and believe that the scientific theory of an expanding universe is described in Sūrat adh-Dhāriyāt:[8][9][10]
We have built the heaven with might, and We it is Who make the vast extent (thereof).
— Quran 51:47
Sūrat al-Aʻrāf states that the "heavens and the earth" were created in the equivalent of six yawm.[11] The Arabic word yawm means "day", and so some Muslims believe the universe was created in six days, akin to the story of creation in the Book of Genesis.[10] However, it is important to note that the "days" mentioned in Quran does not equals to the "24 hours day period".[12] According to Quranic verse 70:4, one day in Quran is equal to 50,000 years on Earth. whereas another verse states that "a day in the sight of your Lord is like 1,000 years of your reckoning" (22:47). The word "youm" is thus understood, within the Qur'an, to be a long period of time -- an era or eon. Therefore, Muslims interpret the description of a "six days" creation as six distinct periods or eons. The length of these periods is not precisely defined, nor are the specific developments that took place during each period.[13]
After completing the Creation, God "settled Himself upon the Throne".[14] The concept of a "day of rest" does not appear in the Quran, and in fact the concept that God needed rest after the creation from tiredness is explicitly denied "And We did certainly create the heavens and earth and what is between them in six days, and there touched Us no weariness" in Surat Qaf verse 38 [15].[8][10]
Creation of life
The only explicit reference to the creation of non-human life in the Quran appears in the aforementioned Sūrat al-Anbiyāʼ, in which God proclaims "We made out of water every living thing." According to Muhammad Asad, "only water has the peculiar properties necessary for the emergence and development of life."[16]
Sunni theologian Said Nursî stated the Earth was already inhabited by intelligent species before humankind. He considered, supported by the hadiths from Ibn Abbas and Tabari, the Jinn lived here before but were almost wiped out by fire.[17] A few interpreters of the Quran believed that even before Jinn, other creatures like Hinn lived on the earth although they failed to provide any narration from Quran or authentic Hadith to support these claims.[18]
Creation of man
The characters of Âdam and his wife (in Islamic tradition called Ḥawwāh) appear in the Quran as the first man and woman.[citation needed] The Quran states that they were created from clay,[19] and were brought to life by the blowing of soul by God entering their bodies.[20] While verses in the Quran and some ahadith indicate that God created Adam first and that Eve was created from Adam,[21] a few scholars proposed that the verses could have multiple interpretations.[22]
The majority of Islamic scholars, including Yasir Qadhi, believe that Adam and Eve were supernaturally created through a miracle by God.[23] Mohamed Ghlian has at times instead asserted that the pair evolved naturally from a common ancestor,[24] but has more recently reached the opposite conclusion.[25]
In the past year[which?] there has been increased support for the idea that humans evolved. (Islamic scholar Adnan Ibrahim is one of them). Many Muslims base their belief of this idea on ayaah 133 of Alannam in the quran which says: (وَرَبُّكَ الْغَنِيُّ ذُو الرَّحْمَةِ ۚ إِن يَشَأْ يُذْهِبْكُمْ وَيَسْتَخْلِفْ مِن بَعْدِكُم مَّا يَشَاءُ كَمَا أَنشَأَكُم مِّن ذُرِّيَّةِ قَوْمٍ آخَرِينَ) this ayah is literally translated and interpreted into: ( And your Lord is the Free of need, the possessor of mercy. If He wills, he can do away with you and give succession after you to whomever He wills, just as He produced you from the descendants of another people.)[26] this ayaah is seen as explaining that humans are descended from non-humans.[citation needed]
References
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2. a b "The World's Muslims: Religion, Politics and Society" (PDF). Pew Research Center. April 30, 2013.
3. a b c al-Azami, Usaama (2013-02-14). "Muslims and Evolution in the 21st Century: A Galileo Moment?". Huffington Post Religion Blog. Retrieved 19 February 2013.
4. a b Al-Ali, Muneer (2013). A scientific Tafsir of Qur'anic verses: interplay of faith and science (2nd Ed.). North Charleston, S.C.: CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform. ISBN 978-1480169968[self-published source?]
5. Dodge, Christine Huda (2003). The Everything Understanding Islam Book: A Complete and Easy to Read Guide to Muslim Beliefs, Practices, Traditions, and Culture. Simon and Schuster. p. 221. ISBN 9781605505459.
6. Quran 21:30
7. Quran 21:31–33
8. Jump up to:a b Ashraf, Faheem. "Islamic Concept of Creation of Universe Big Bang and Science-Religion Interaction". Retrieved 3 March 2017.
9. Guessoum, Nidhal (Oct 30, 2010). Islam's Quantum Question: Reconciling Muslim Tradition and Modern Science (PDF). I.B.Tauris. p. 351. ISBN 9780857730756. Retrieved 3 March 2017.[permanent dead link]
10. Jump up to:a b c Suleiman, Omar (31 March 2015). "The Beginning and the End with Omar Suleiman: 6 Days, 7 Heavens, 7 Earths? (Ep. 15)". Bayyinah Institute. Retrieved 23 April 2017.
11. "Quran, Qaf 50:38".
12. "In how many days the heavens and the earth were created?". Dar al-Ifta al-Misriyyah. Archived from the original on 12 January 2020. Retrieved 12 January 2020.
13. "Islam creation story". nau.edu. Archived from the original on 6 December 2019. Retrieved 12 January 2020.
14. Quran 7:54
15. "Qaf 50:38".
16. Asad, Muhammad (1984). The Message of the Qu'rán (PDF). Gibraltar, Spain: Dar al-Andalus Limited. p. 677. ISBN 978-1904510000.
17. Tubanur Yesilhark Ozkan A Muslim Response to Evil: Said Nursi on the TheodicyRoutledge ISBN 978-1-317-18754-7 page 141
18. "Life on Earth Before Adam - Islam Question & Answer".
19. Quran 15:28
20. Quran 15:29
21. "Sahih al-Bukhari » Book of Prophets » Hadith » Chapter: The creation of Adam and his offspring". Sunnah.com. Retrieved 2 September 2018.
22. Wheeler, Brannon M. (18 June 2002). Prophets in the Quran: An Introduction to the Quran and Muslim Exegesis. A&C Black. p. 15. ISBN 9780826449573.
23. Lim, Eunice (13 September 2014). "Muslim scholar explains relationship between evolution and the Quran". The Daily Pennsylvanian. Retrieved 23 April 2017.
24. Ghlian, Mohamed (6 April 2014). "On Muslims & Evolution". On Matters Islamic, Political, Scientific, & Philosophical. Archived from the original on 10 August 2017. Retrieved 23 April 2017.
25. غيـــلان, 𝐌𝐨𝐡𝐚𝐦𝐞𝐝 𝐆𝐡𝐢𝐥𝐚𝐧 | محمـــد (2019-08-18). "Theistic evolution is a masked capitulation to materialist dogma Darwinian evolution is an atheist mythology about Life Adam peace be upon him did not have parents Maryam peace be upon her had an immaculate conception of 'Isa peace be upon him Allah ﷻ is not a statue maker". @MohamedGhilan. Retrieved 2019-09-13.
26. https://quran.com/6/133
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30. Draper, John William (1874). History of the Conflict Between Religion and Science(PDF). p. 126.
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35. Kaya, Veysel (April 2012). "Can the Quran Support Darwin? An Evolutionist Approach by Two Turkish Scholars after the Foundation of the Turkish Republic". The Muslim World. 102(2): 357. doi:10.1111/j.1478-1913.2011.01362.x.
36. a b Burton, Elise K. (May–June 2010). "Teaching Evolution in Muslim States:Iran and Saudi Arabia Compared" (PDF). Reports of the National Center for Science Education. 30 (3): 25–29. ISSN 2158-818X. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2018-02-19. Retrieved 2014-01-13.
37. "Turkish academics tell ministry that evolution theory excluded from curriculum 'only in Saudi Arabia'". Hürriyet Daily News. 1 March 2017. Retrieved 24 April 2017.
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56. Youssef Chouhoud (2016). "Modern Pathways to Doubt in Islam". Yaqeen Institute for Islamic Research. Retrieved October 26, 2016. What these varied responses point to is a lack of consensus around not just the best way to tackle this issue, but whether the leaders charged with addressing it are qualified to do so.
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Jinn
In an Islamic context, the term jinn is used for both a collective designation for any supernatural creature and also to refer to a specific type of supernatural creature.[6] Therefore, jinn are often mentioned together with devils/demons (shayāṭīn).
Islamic theology
The 72nd chapter of the Qur'an entitled Al-Jinn (The Jinn), as well as the heading and introductory bismillah of the next chapter entitled al-Muzzammil (The Enshrouded One).
Jinn are mentioned approximately 29 times in the Quran.[25] In Islamic tradition, Muhammad was sent as a prophet to both human and jinn communities, and that prophets and messengers were sent to both communities.[26][27] Traditionally Surah 72, named after them (Al-Jinn), is held to tell about the revelation to jinn and several stories mention one of Muhammad's followers accompanied him, witnessing the revelation to the jinn.[28] They appear with different attitudes.[29] In the story of Solomon they appear as nature spirits comparable to Talmudic shedim. Solomon was gifted by God to talk to animals and spirits. God granted him authority over the rebellious jinn and devils forcing them to build the First Temple. In other instances, the Quran tells about Pagan Arabs, calling jinn for help, instead of God. The Quran reduced the status of jinn from that of tutelary deities to that of minor spirits, usually paralleling humans.[30] In this regard, the jinn appear often paired with humans. To assert a strict monotheism and the Islamic concept of Tauhid, all affinities between the jinn and God were denied, thus jinn were placed parallel to humans, also subject to God's judgment and afterlife. They are also mentioned in collections of canonical hadiths. One hadith divides them into three groups, with one type flying through the air; another that are snakes and dogs; and a third that moves from place to place like human.[31]
Exegesis
Belief in jinn is not included among the six articles of Islamic faith, as belief in angels is, however at least some Muslim scholars believe it essential to the Islamic faith.[32][33] In Quranic interpretation, the term jinn can be used in two different ways:
· As invisible entities, who roamed the earth before Adam, created by God out of a "mixture of fire" or "smokeless fire" (marijin min nar). They are believed to resemble humans in that they eat and drink, have children and die, are subject to judgment, so will either be sent to heaven or hell according to their deeds.[34] But they were much faster and stronger than humans.[35] This jinn are distinct from an angelic tribe called Al-jinn, named after Jannah (the Gardens), heavenly creatures created out of the fires of samum in contrast to the genus of jinn created out of mixture of fire, who waged war against the genus of jinn and regarded as able to sin, unlike their light created counterpart.[36][37]
· As the opposite of al-Ins (something in shape) referring to any object that cannot be detected by human sensory organs, including angels, demons and the interior of human beings. Accordingly, every demon and every angel is also a jinn, but not every jinn is an angel or a demon.[38][39][40][41] Al-Jahiz categorizes the jinn in his work Kitab al-Hayawan as follows: If he is pure, clean, untouched by any defilement, being entirely good, he is an angel, if he is faithless, dishonest, hostile, wicked, he is demon, if he succeeds in supporting an edifice, lifting a heavy weight and listening at the doors of Heaven he is a marid and if he more than this, he is an ifrit.[42]
Related to common traditions, the angels were created on Wednesday, the jinn on Thursday and humans on Friday, but not the very next day, rather more than 1000 years later, respectively.[43] The community of the jinn race were like those of humans, but then corruption and injustice among them increased and all warnings sent by God were ignored. Consequently, God sent his angels to battle the infidel jinn. Just a few survived, and were ousted to far islands or to the mountains. With the revelation of Islam, the jinn were given a new chance to access salvation.[31][44][45] But because of their prior creation, the jinn would attribute themselves to a superiority over humans and envy them for their place and rank on earth.[46] The different jinn known in Islamic folklore are disregarded among most mufassirs, Tabari being an exception, yet he is not specific about them, probably due to lack of theological significance. However, since Tabari is one of the earliest commentators, the several jinn have been known.[47]
Jinn belief
The cave chamber Majlis al Jinn believed to be a gathering place of the jinn in Omani lore.
Classical era
Zulqarnayn with the help of some jinn, building the Iron Wall to keep the barbarian Gog and Magog from civilized peoples (16th century Persian miniature)
Although the Quran reduced the status of jinn from that of tutelary deities to merely spirits, placed parallel to humans, subject to God's judgment and the process of life, death and afterlife, they were not consequently equated with demons.[48] When Islam spread outside of Arabia, belief in the jinn was assimilated with local belief about spirits and deities from Iran, Africa, Turkey and India.[49]
Early Persian translations of the Quran identified the jinn either with peris or divs[31] depending on their moral behavior. However, such identifications of jinn with spirits of another culture are not universal. Some of the pre-Islamic spirits remained. Peris and divs are frequently attested as distinct from jinn among Muslim lore,[50] but since both div as well as jinn are associated with demonic possession and the ability to transform themselves, they overlap sometimes.[51]
Especially Morocco has many possession traditions, including exorcism rituals,[52] despite the fact, jinn's ability to possess humans is not mentioned in canonical Islamic scriptures directly.
In Artas (Bethlemhem) oral beliefs, the jinn form societies beneath the ground. Envying humans, they frequently ascend to the surface, causing sickness to children, snatching food and taking revenge when humans mistreat them. Some jinn are nevertheless benevolent towards humans, teaching humans a moral lesson.[53]
In Sindh the concept of the jinni was introduced when Islam became acceptable and "Jinn" has become a common part of local folklore, also including stories of both male jinn called "jinn" and female jinn called "Jiniri". Folk stories of female jinn include stories such as the Jejhal Jiniri. Although, due to the cultural influence, the concept of jinn may vary, all share some common features. The jinn are believed to live in societies resembling those of humans, practicing religion (including Islam, Christianity and Judaism), having emotions, needing to eat and drink, and can procreate and raise families. Additionally, they fear iron, generally appear in desolate or abandoned places, and are stronger and faster than humans.[31] Since the jinn share the earth with humans, Muslims are often cautious not to accidentally hurt an innocent jinn by uttering "destur" (permission), before sprinkling hot water.[31][54][55] Generally, jinn are thought to eat bones and prefer rotten flesh over fresh flesh.[56]
In Mughal or Urdu cultures Jinn often appear to be obese characters and refer to their masters as "Aqa".
In later Albanian lore, jinn (Xhindi) live either on earth or under the surface and may possess people who have insulted them, for example if their children are trodden upon or hot water thrown on them.[57]
The concept of Jinn was also prevalent in Ottoman society and much about their beliefs is yet to be known.
In Turkic lore, jinn (Turkish: Cin) are often paired with in, another demonic entity, sharing many characteristics with the jinn.[58]
The black king of the djinns, Al-Malik al-Aswad, from the late 14th century Book of Wonders
The composition and existence of jinn is the subject of various debates during the Middle Ages. According to Al-Shafi’i (founder of Shafi‘i schools), the invisibility of jinn is so certain that anyone who thinks they have seen one is ineligible to give legal testimony—unless they are a Prophet.[59] According to Ashari, the existence of jinn can not be proven, because arguments concerning the existence of jinn are beyond human comprehension. Adepts of Ashʿari theology explained jinn are invisible to humans, because they lack the appropriate sense organs to envision them.[60] Sceptics argued, doubting the existence of jinn, if jinn exist, their bodies must either be ethereal or made of solid material; if they were composed of the former, they would not able to do hard work, like carrying heavy stones. If they were composed of the latter, they would be visible to any human with functional eyes.[61] Therefore, sceptics refused to believe in a literal reading on jinn in Islamic sacred texts, preferring to view them as "unruly men" or metaphorical.[31] On the other hand, advocates of belief in jinn assert that God's creation can exceed the human mind; thus, jinn are beyond human understanding. Since they are mentioned in Islamic texts, scholars such as Ibn Taimiyya and Ibn Hazm prohibit the denial of jinn. They also refer to spirits and demons among the Christians, Zoroastrians and Jews to "prove" their existence.[61] Ibn Taymiyya believed the jinn to be generally "ignorant, untruthful, oppressive and treacherous". He held that the jinn account for much of the "magic" that is perceived by humans, cooperating with magicians to lift items in the air, delivering hidden truths to fortune tellers, and mimicking the voices of deceased humans during seances.[62]
Other critics, such as Jahiz and Mas'udi, related sightings of jinn to psychological causes. According to Mas'udi, the jinn as described by traditional scholars, are not a priori false, but improbable. Jahiz states in his work Kitab al-Hayawan that loneliness induces humans to mind-games and wishful thinking, causing waswās (whisperings in the mind, traditionally thought to be caused by Satan). If he is afraid, he may see things that are not real. These alleged appearances are told to other generations in bedtime stories and poems, and with children of the next generation growing up with such stories, when they are afraid or lonely, they remember these stories, encouraging their imaginations and causing another alleged sighting of jinn. However, Jahiz is less critical about jinn and demons than Mas'udi, stating human fantasy at least encourage people to imagine such creatures.[63] The Futūḥāt al-Makkiyya, attributed to the famous Sufi Shaikh Ibn Arabi, reconciles a literal existence of jinn with the imaginal, describing the appearance of jinn as a reflection of the observer and the place they are found. They differ from the angels, which due to their closeness to heaven reflect the spheres of the divine, mainly in their distance to the earth and the heavens, stating: "Only this much is different: The spirits of the jinn are lower spirits, while the spirits of angels are heavenly spirits".[64] The jinn share, due to their intermediary abode both angelic and human traits. Because jinn are closer to the material realm, it would be easier for human to contact a jinn, than an angel.[65]
Modern era
Fethullah Gülen, leader of Hizmet movement, had put forward the idea, that jinn may be the cause of schizophrenia and cancer and that the Quranic references to jinn on "smokeless fire" could for that matter mean "energy".[72] Others again refuse connections between illness and jinn, but still believe in their existence, due to their occurrences in the Quran.[73] Many Modernists tend to reject the belief in jinn as superstition, holding back Islamic society. References to jinn in the Quran are interpreted in their ambiguous meaning of something invisible, and might be forces or simply angels.[74] Otherwise the importance of belief in jinn to Islamic belief in contemporary Muslim society was underscored by the judgment of apostasy by an Egyptian Sharia court in 1995 against liberal theologian Nasr Abu Zayd.[75] Abu Zayd was declared an unbeliever of Islam for — among other things — arguing that the reason for the presence of jinn in the Quran was that they (jinn) were part of Arab culture at the time of the Quran's revelation, rather than that they were part of God's creation.[33] Death threats led to Nasr Abu Zayd's leaving Egypt several weeks later.[Note 1]
Modern Salafi tenets of Islam, refuse reinterpretations of jinn and adhere to literalism arguing the threat of jinn and their ability to possess humans, could be proven by Quran and Sunnah.[77] However, many Salafis differ from their understanding of jinn from earlier accounts. Fatwas issued by Salafi scholars are often repetitive and limit the scope of all their answers to the same Quran verses and hadith quotes, without further investigating the traditions associated with and missing any reference to the individual experience. By that, a vast amount of traditions and beliefs among Muslims is excluded from contemporary theological discourse and downplaying embedded Muslim beliefs as local lore, such as symptoms of jinn possession. The opinions of the prominent Saudi Muslim lecturer Muhammad Al-Munajjid, an important scholar in Salafism and founder of IslamQA, are repeated over several online sources, and is also cited by IslamOnline and Islamicity.com for information about jinn, devils and angels. Similar Islamawareness.net and IslamOnline both feature the article about jinn written by Fethullah Gulen, using a similar approach to interpret the spiritual world.[78] Further, there is no distinction made between devils and demons and the jinn, indifferent spirits, as Salafi scholars Umar Sulaiman Al-Ashqar stated,[79] that demons are actually simply unbelieving jinn. Further Muhammad Al-Munajjid, asserts that reciting various Quranic verses and adhkaar (devotional acts involving the repetition of short sentences glorifying God) "prescribed in Sharia (Islamic law)" can protect against jinn,[59] associating Islamic healing rituals common across Islamic culture with shirk (polytheism).[80] For that reason, Saudi Arabia, following the Wahhabism strant of Salafism, imposes a death penalty for dealing with jinn to prevent sorcery and witchcraft.[81][82] Contrary to the official teachings of modern Islam, cultural beliefs about jinn remained popular among Muslim societies and their understanding of cosmology and anthropology.[83]
Affirmation on the existence of jinn as sapient creatures living along with humans is still widespread in the Middle Eastern world and mental illnesses are still often attributed to jinn possession.[84]
Ǧinn (jinn) and shayāṭīn (demons/devils)
Both Islamic and non-Islamic scholarship generally distinguishes between angels, jinn and demons as three different types of spiritual entities in Islamic traditions.[88][89] The lines between demons and jinn are often blurred. Especially in folklore, jinn share many characteristics usually associated with demons, as both are held responsible for mental illness, diseases and possession. However, such traits do not appear within the Quran or canonical hadiths. The Quran emphasizes comparison between humans and jinn as taqalan (accountable ones, that means they have free-will and will be judged according to their deeds).[90][89] Since the demons are exclusively evil, they are not among taqalan, thus like angels, their destiny is prescribed.[91] The jinn share many characteristics with humans, but demons lack.[92] Folklore differentiates both types of creatures as well. Field researches in 2001-2002, among Sunni Muslims in Syria, recorded many oral-tales about jinn. Tales about the Devil (Iblīs) and his lesser demons (shayāṭīn) barely appeared, in contrast to tales about jinn, who featured frequently in everyday stories. It seems the demons are primarily associated with their role within Islamic scriptures, as abstract forces tempting Muslims into everything disapproved by society, while jinn can be encountered by humans in lonley places.[93] This fits the general notion that the demons whisper into the heart of humans, but do not possess them physically.[94] Since the term shaitan is also used as an epithet to describe the taqalan (humans and jinn), naming malevolent jinn also shayāṭīn in some sources, it is sometimes difficult to hold them apart.[95][96] Satan and his devilish hosts of demons (shayatin) generally appear in traditions associated with Judeo-Christian narratives, while jinn represent entities of polytheistic background.[c]
Depictions
Supernaturality
Jinn are not supernatural in the sense of being purely spiritual and transcendent to nature; while they are believed to be invisible (or often invisible) they also eat, drink, sleep, breed with the opposite sex, with offspring that resemble their parents. Intercourse is not limited to the jinn alone, but also possible between human and jinn. However, the practice is despised (makruh) in Islamic law. It is disputed whether or not such intercourse can result in offspring. They are "natural" in the classical philosopical sense by consisting of an element, undergoing change, and being bound in time and space.[98] They resemble spirits or demons in the sense of evading sensible perception, but are not of immaterial nature as Rūḥāniyya are.[99] Thus they interact in a tactile manner with people and objects. In scientific treatises the jinn are included and depicted as animals (hayawan) with a subtle body.[100] The Qanoon-e-Islam, written 1832 by Sharif Ja'far, writing about jinn-belief in India, states that their body constitutes 90% of spirit and 10% of flesh.[101] They resemble humans in many regards, their subtle matter being the only main difference. But it is this very nature that enables them to change their shape, move quickly, fly, and entering human bodies, cause epilepsy and illness, hence the temptation for humans to make them allies by means of magical practices.[102]
Unlike the jinn in Islamic belief and folklore, jinn in Middle Eastern folktales, depicted as magical creatures, are unlike the former, generally considered to be fictional.[103]
Appearance
A Sinai Desert Cobra. Snakes are the animals most frequently associated with jinn. Black snakes are commonly considered as evil jinn, while white snakes as Muslim jinn.[104]
The appearance of jinn can be divided into three major categories:[105]
Zoomorphic manifestation
Jinn are assumed to be able to appear in shape of various animals such as scorpions, cats, owls and onagers. Dogs are another animal often associated with jinn, especially black dogs. However, piebald dogs are rather identified with hinn. Associations between dogs and jinn prevailed in Arabic-literature, but lost its meaning in Persian scriptures.[106] However (except for the 'udhrut from Yemeni folklore) the jinn can not appear in form of wolves. The wolf is thought of as the natural predator of the jinn, who contrasts the jinn by his noble character and disables them to vanish.[107][43] Serpents are the animals most associated with jinn. Islamic traditions knows many narratitions concerning a serpent who was actually a jinni.[108] The term jann refers to both a snake and jinn. The connection between jinn and serpents are strong enough, that those who believe in jinn, fear killing a serpent since a jinn might avenge the murder. Also some sources speak of killed jinn leaving a carcass similar to either a serpent or a scorpion behind. Both scorpions and serpents have been venerated in Ancient near East. Besides serpents, other chthonic animals such as sorpions and lizards have been regarded as usual forms of jinn. Further, gazelles, foxes, dogs and ostriches are associated with jinn. But these are not necessarily thought to be the emobodiment of jinn, but rather their mounts.[109]
Jinn in form of storms and shadows
The jinn are also related to the wind. They may appear in mists or sandstorms.[110] Zubayr ibn al-Awam, who is held to have accompanied Muhammad during his lecture to the jinn, is said to view the jinn as shadowy ghosts with no individual structure.[28] According to a narration Ghazali asked Ṭabasī, famous for jinn-incantations, to reveal the jinn to him. Accordingly, Tabasi showed him the jinn, seeing them like they were "a shadow on the wall". After Ghazali requested to speak to them, Ṭabasī stated, that for now he could not see more.[111] Although sandstorms are believed to be caused by jinn, others, such as Abu Yahya Zakariya' ibn Muhammad al-Qazwini and Ghazali attribute them to natural causes.[112] Otherwise sandstorms are thought to be caused by a battle between different groups of jinn.
Anthropomorphic manifestation
A common characteristic of the jinn is their lack of individuality, but they may gain individuality by materializing in human forms,[113] such as Sakhr and several jinn known from magical writings. But also in their anthropomorphic shape, they stay partly animal and are not fully human. Therefore, individual jinn are commonly depicted as monstrous and anthropomorphized creatures with body parts from different animals or human with animal traits.[114] Commonly associated with jinn in human form are the Si'lah and the Ghoul. However, since they stay partly animal, their bodies are depicted as fashioned out of two or more different species.[115] Some of them may have the hands of cats, the head of birds or wings rise from their shoulders.[116]
In witchcraft and magical literature
Witchcraft (Arabic: سِحْر sihr, which is also used to mean "magic, wizardry") is often associated with jinn and afarit[117] around the Middle East. Therefore, a sorcerer may summon a jinn and force him to perform orders. Summoned jinn may be sent to the chosen victim to cause demonic possession. Such summonings were done by invocation,[118] by aid of talismans or by satisfying the jinn, thus to make a contract.[119] Jinn are also regarded as assistants of soothsayers. Soothsayers reveal information from the past and present; the jinn can be a source of this information because their lifespans exceed those of humans.[35] Another way to subjugate them is by inserting a needle to their skin or dress. Since jinn are afraid of iron, they are unable to remove it with their own power.[120]
Ibn al-Nadim, Muslim scholar of his Kitāb al-Fihrist, describes a book that lists 70 Jinn led by Fuqtus (Arabic: Fuqṭus فقْطس), including several jinn appointed over each day of the week.[121][122] Bayard Dodge, who translated al-Fihrist into English, notes that most of these names appear in the Testament of Solomon.[121] A collection of late fourteenth- or early fifteenth-century magico-medical manuscripts from Ocaña, Spain describes a different set of 72 jinn (termed "Tayaliq") again under Fuqtus (here named "Fayqayțūš" or Fiqitush), blaming them for various ailments.[123][124] According to these manuscripts, each jinni was brought before King Solomon and ordered to divulge their "corruption" and "residence" while the Jinn King Fiqitush gave Solomon a recipe for curing the ailments associated with each jinni as they confessed their transgressions.[125]
A disseminated treatise on the occult, written by al-Ṭabasī, called Shāmil, deals with subjugating demons and jinn by incantations, charms and the combination of written and recited formulae and to obtain supernatural powers through their aid. Al-Ṭabasī distinguished between licit and illicit magic, the later founded on disbelief, while the first on purity.[126]
Seven kings of the Jinn are traditionally associated with days of the week.[127] They are also attesteed in the Book of Wonders. Although many passages are damaged, they remain in Ottoman copies. These jinn-kings (sometimes afarit instead) are invoked to legitimate spells performed by amulets.[128]
· Sunday: Al-Mudhib (Abu 'Abdallah Sa'id)
· Monday: Murrah al-Abyad Abu al-Harith (Abu al-Nur)
· Tuesday: Abu Mihriz (or Abu Ya'qub) Al-Ahmar
· Wednesday: Barqan Abu al-'Adja'yb
· Thursday: Shamhurish (al-Tayyar)
· Friday: Abu Hasan Zoba'ah (al-Abyad)
· Saturday: Abu Nuh Maimun
During the Rwandan genocide, both Hutus and Tutsis avoided searching local Rwandan Muslim neighborhoods because they widely believed the myth that local Muslims and mosques were protected by the power of Islamic magic and the efficacious jinn.[citation needed] In the Rwandan city of Cyangugu, arsonists ran away instead of destroying the mosque because they feared the wrath of the jinn, whom they believed were guarding the mosque.[129]
Hinn (mythology)
Hinn (Arabic: حنّ) are supernatural creatures, besides jinn and demons, in Arabian lore and also a group of pre-Adamitic race in Islam-related beliefs.[1] The existence of the hinn is accepted by the Druze,[2] along with binn, timm and rimm.[3]
Pre-Adamitic circles
According to the Alawi sect, the Hinn is part of the "circle of time", belonging to a period preceding the creation of mankind. Therefore before humans, the Hinn, binn, Timm, rimm, Jann and jinn roamed the earth. These six periods symbolize negative progress until humans emerge, thus the first letters of the first four circles mean Habtar (here referring to the personification of evil) and the latter referring to Jann and Jinn as subordinates of the devil. The following circle divides human history, starting with Adam and ends with Muhammad, the period in which humans now live.[4]
Alternatively, hinn have been said to be associated with air and another creature, binn, with water in a document called "Revelations of ʻAbdullah Al-Sayid Muhammad Habib". In the same document, Hinn and binn are said to be extinct, unlike jinn.[5]
According to Ibn Kathir, the hinn belongs together with the jinn to those creatures who shed blood on earth before humankind, causing the angels to question God's command to place Adam as a vicegerent.[6] In his work Al-Bidāya wa-n-Nihāya, he relates that the Hinn and binn were exterminated by the jinn so that they could dwell on the earth.[7]
Muhammad Al-Tahir ibn Ashur states in his work at-Tahreer wa’t-Tanweer that the Hinn and binn may be a reference to Persian mythology or the Ancient Greek Titans, who were driven away by their deities.[8]
Hinn fighting alongside angels
According to some accounts, the Hinn supported the angels, led by Iblis during a battle against the earthen jinn, who bore disaster on the world. Tabari explained the Hinn were created out of fire, like the jinn. But the Hinn, who belong to Iblis´s group are created out of the fire of samum (scorching fire), which is mentioned in the Quran (15:27) while the regular jinn are created out of marij min nar (smokeless flame), which is mentioned in (55:15).[9]
Iblīs
ISLAM
Iblīs, in Islam, the personal name of the devil, probably derived from the Greek diabolos. Iblīs, the counterpart of the Jewish and Christian Satan, is also referred to as ʿadūw Allāh (enemy of God), ʿadūw (enemy), or, when he is portrayed as a tempter, ash-Shayṭān (demon).
At the creation of man, God ordered all his angels to bow down in obedience before Adam. Iblīs refused, claiming he was a nobler being since he was created of fire, while man came only of clay. For this exhibition of pride and disobedience, God threw Iblīs out of heaven. His punishment, however, was postponed until the Judgment Day, when he and his host will have to face the eternal fires of hell; until that time he is allowed to tempt all but true believers to evil. As his first demonic act, Iblīs, referred to in this context as shayṭān, entered the Garden of Eden and tempted Eve to eat of the tree of immortality, causing both Adam and Eve to forfeit paradise. Disguised as the hātif, the mysterious voice of Arab mythology, Iblīs also tempted ʿAlī, Muhammad’s son-in-law, unsuccessfully trying to keep him from performing the ritual washing of the Prophet’s dead body.
Iblīs has long been a figure of speculation among Muslim scholars, who have been trying to explain the ambiguous identification of Iblīs in the Qurʾān as either angel or jinnī, a contradiction in terms, as angels are created of light (nūr) and are incapable of sin, while jinn are created of fire (nār) and can sin. Traditions on this point are numerous and conflicting: Iblīs was simply a jinnī who inappropriately found himself among the angels in heaven; he was an angel sent to Earth to do battle with the rebellious jinn who inhabited the Earth before man was created; Iblīs was himself one of the terrestrial jinn captured by the angels during their attack and brought to heaven. See also shaitan.
Shaitan
Shaitan, also spelled Sheitan, Arabic Shayṭān, in Islāmic myth, an unbelieving class of jinn (“spirits”); it is also the name of Iblīs, the devil, when he is performing demonic acts.
In the system of evil jinn outlined by the Arab writer al-Jāḥiẓ, the shaitans are identified simply as unbelieving jinn. Folklore, however, describes them as exceptionally ugly creatures, either male or female, capable of assuming human form—though their feet always remain hooves. They eat excrement and use disease as their weapon and are said to exist on the borderline between light and darkness. Indian and Syrian shaitans are described as the strongest of their class.
The exact nature of the shaitans, however, is difficult to determine. Historically, among the pre-Islāmic Arabs, they functioned as familiars, or Greek demons, providing inspiration for soothsayers and poets. In the stories of Solomon, the shaitans seem to be no more than particularly knowledgeable jinn. In the Qurʾān, however, they assume the role of devil, an obvious borrowing from Judaic tradition. While they are not necessarily evil, they belong to the hordes commanded by Iblīs, the devil, who is also called in Arabic ash-Shayṭān. He and the shaitans whisper evil suggestions into men’s ears but have no real power over men. It is said that they are as close to men as their blood, but the shaitans can only tempt, and their success depends on their ingenuity. See also jinnī; Iblīs.
